OUR AREAS OF EXPERTISE AND SELECTED PROJECTS
Explore our work across labour law, social protection, labour mobility, occupational health and safety, and the changing world of work through selected projects for European institutions and agencies.
Labour Law and policy
The aim of EU labour law and policy is to ensure fair working conditions across Member States while enabling the effective functioning of the Single Market. EU labour law establishes minimum standards in areas such as working time, employment protection, working conditions, OSH, protection against unfair dismissal and equal treatment in employment. A central element of EU action is the promotion of social dialogue, ensuring that employers and employees are actively involved in shaping employment policy and labour market reform.
The free movement of workers is guaranteed by Article 45 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the EU (TFEU) and enables EU citizens to work in any Member State without a work permit. This supports economic integration and helps to address labour shortages across regions and sectors. Enhancing labour mobility while maintaining high labour standards is an increasingly important priority for the EU as it fosters a more integrated labour market, promotes the efficient allocation of skills and ensures that mobility takes place under fair and transparent conditions.
Milieu provides legal and policy advice on working conditions and cross-border labour mobility to several Directorates-General of the European Commission, the ELA, the European Parliament and FRA, helping to evaluate and improve legal frameworks, public policy and institutional set-up. Some examples of our work in this area are:
For over 10 years, Milieu and KU Leuven have contributed to the annual report on intra-EU labour mobility for DG EMPL, offering a comprehensive analysis of labour mobility trends in the EU and European Free Trade Association (EFTA) countries. These reports draw on the latest data to meet the requirements of Article 29 of Regulation (EU) 2016/589, which mandates the monitoring and reporting of labour mobility flows and patterns within the Union.
These annual reports cover long-term, cross-border and return mobility, using Eurostat population statistics and the EU Labour Force Survey (EU-LFS) to assess key labour market indicators (e.g. employment, unemployment) and types of contracts, comparing mobile workers with nationals and third-country nationals. They offer valuable insights that inform policies to enhance mobility, address labour market gaps and ensure fair working conditions for all.
The 2024 edition of the report can be found here. It analyses the mobility of all working-age EU citizens (Chapter 1), explores the movement and characteristics of the mobile population in the EU and EFTA (Chapter 2), examines the social situation of mobile citizens and their performance in the EU Social Scoreboard (Chapter 3), and considers at the importance of movers and third-country nationals for healthcare in Europe (Chapter 4).
Labour conditions for agricultural workers in the EU are often poorly documented. The introduction of the new Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and the planned implementation of social conditionality in 2025 necessitated a clearer understanding of how labour and OSH rules are enforced and how agricultural workers’ conditions can be improved.
Milieu, with the support of Stichting Wageningen Research, CREDA, CRP and FNEA, is leading this comprehensive analysis of the current working conditions of agricultural workers, focusing on the effectiveness of enforcement systems for the Transparent and Predictable Work Conditions Directive, the OSH Framework Directive and the Work Equipment Directive. The study explores the feasibility of extending the mechanism to include Article 7(1) of the Free Movement of Workers Regulation and examines options for broadening the scope of social conditionality. It also addresses practical implementation challenges within the CAP framework.
Read the full study here.
In recent years, a number of sectors have been identified as having a highly mobile workforce. Milieu has supported the ELA to prepare comprehensive reports on labour law violations and social security coordination in several sectors, such as construction, hotel, retail and catering (HoReCa), road transport, care and manufacturing.
These reports provide a comprehensive overview of the sectors concerned, including their unique characteristics, labour market mobility, and their role within the EU economy. We have also examined the relevant legal framework for these sectors at national, EU, and international level, focusing on enforcement challenges related to labour mobility and social security coordination. Key areas of analysis include the role of social partners, enforcement tools and competencies of Member State authorities and the information needs of both workers and employers.
Together with our network of national experts, we have delivered detailed national reports for all 27 Member States, providing insights into each country’s specific challenges.
The final reports will inform future ELA campaigns and support the European Employment Service (EURES) European Coordination Office in planning information activities for the construction, HoReCa and road transport sectors.
Read the reports here:
Social protection and inclusion
Social protection and inclusion systems aim to ensure that all individuals have access to adequate income support, essential services and opportunities for participation in society, particularly during times of vulnerability. This includes social security systems such as pensions, healthcare, unemployment benefits and minimum income schemes for individuals facing job loss, illness, or retirement. Social inclusion targets marginalised and vulnerable groups, reducing inequalities and promoting access to education, employment, and basic services.
Introduced in 2017, the European Pillar of Social Rights emphasises the need for well-functioning social protection systems and inclusive policies across the EU. Promoting strong social protection and inclusion frameworks supports multiple policy goals, including poverty reduction, equality and social cohesion. These systems also contribute to economic stability by safeguarding individuals from income shocks and fostering more inclusive labour markets.
Building on its expertise in social policy, Milieu contributes to social protection and inclusion policy through projects for the European Commission, the European Parliament, and other stakeholders.
Some examples of our projects include:
This study examined saps in the protection of third-country seasonal workers in the EU and proposes policy options to address these issues. It identifies key challenges faced by these workers, including poor working conditions, inadequate accommodation, limited access to social protection and weak enforcement of regulations under the Seasonal Workers Directive (SWD).
The report compares the protection of workers under the SWD with those employed through other permit schemes. Based on extensive research and consultation, the report suggests a range of policy measures to enhance the protection of third-country seasonal workers, ranging from improved information provision to stronger monitoring and enforcement, as well as potential legislative changes.
This study explores access to essential services across the Member States, focusing on barriers such as affordability, availability and quality. It supports the implementation of Principle 20 of the European Pillar of Social Rights, which ensures the right to essential services such as water, energy, transport and digital communication for all, with special support for those in need.
Through desk research, national reports and quantitative analysis using Eurostat data, the study identifies key challenges faced by households, particularly those at risk of poverty. It also highlights several policy measures that improve access, such as price caps, service-specific subsidies and automatic benefit allocation. The findings emphasise the importance of monitoring and tailored policy approaches to address gaps in access to essential services across the EU.
Read the full report here.
This study examines the use of digital services and tools in coordinating social security systems across the Member States, particularly how these technologies facilitate cross-border cooperation and improve efficiency. The ELA promotes the adoption of innovative digital approaches to enhance message exchange, detect fraud and improve real-time access to data between Member States.
Milieu and our partners compiled an overview of the digital services in use or in development across the Member States, assessing their availability, scope and quality. The study highlights national-level innovations and identifies best practices, providing a valuable resource for cross-country learning. By analysing the barriers and opportunities for further digitalisation in social security coordination, Milieu supports Member States to enhance their systems, fostering more efficient and interconnected social security frameworks across the EU.
Read the full report here.
Building on this work, we collaborated with ELA on understanding the digitalisation of cross-border social security through a study on the issuance procedures for Portable Document A1 (PD A1) in posting situations. We investigated the extent to which PD A1 applications are handled online, the grounds of assessment criteria applied, and the verification and anti-fraud measures used by competent authorities to assess the authenticity of PD A1s issued by sending Member States.
Occupational Health and Safety (osh)
Established since the 1980s, the EU’s OSH legal framework aims to ensure a high level of worker protection across all Member States. EU legislation, policies and campaigns have a significant impact by ensuring a common minimum level of protection throughout the EU, with Member States also maintaining or establishing more stringent measures. The OSH acquis establishes key principles and mechanisms for employers and workers to ensure safe and healthy workplaces.
Article 153 of the TFEU gives the EU and European co-legislators the competence to adopt legislation to support and complement the activities of Member States. The OSH Framework Directive sets out general principles to improve worker safety and is complemented by individual and related directives addressing specific risks, workplaces and working conditions. A high level of protection of workers’ health and safety at work is a key principle of the European Pillar of Social Rights, while the Charter of Fundamental Rights establishes a right to working conditions that respect workers’ health, safety and dignity.
Milieu’s track record includes leading studies for several European institutions and agencies, including evaluations of the OSH legislation and policies for the DG EMPL and research projects for EU-OSHA.
Milieu led the five-year review of the practical implementation of the EU’s OSH directives for the period 2018-2022. We mapped the practical implementation of the directives in the Member States, reviewing recent developments, assessing current and future relevance of the directives in light of the latest scientific insights, and identifying potential improvements to the functioning of the directives. Based on comprehensive research, analysis and stakeholder consultation across all 27 Member States, we delivered actionable recommendations to enhance implementation of the directives and workplace safety across Europe.
In June 2014, the European Commission adopted the EU Strategic Framework on Health and Safety at Work for 2014-2020, setting key objectives to address OSH challenges across the EU. Within the framework of the evaluation of the Strategic Framework, we gathered national-level data from all 27 Member States and the United Kingdom (UK), mapping policies and consulting relevant stakeholders. We also analysed the national implementation reports 2013-2017 submitted by the national authorities. Our findings supported DG EMPL’s evaluation of the OSH Strategic Framework and the preparation of the next EU Strategic Framework on Health and Safety at Work 2021-2027. In 2013, we supported DG EMPL’s first evaluation of 24 EU OSH directives as part of the European Commission’s Regulatory Fitness and Performance programme (REFIT). Covering 2007-2012, the evaluation assessed the directives’ relevance, effectiveness and coherence, and identified areas for improvement. We led the mapping of the national implementation of the OSH directives across the EU, analysed the coherence of the EU OSH acquis, and developed recommendations.
Together with academics across the EU, Milieu is preparing OSHwiki articles as part of EU-OSHA’s Healthy Workplaces Campaign 2026-2028 on mental health and psychosocial risks at work. The OSHwiki articles connect academic research and current scientific knowledge with workplace practice, reaching employers, workers and social partners. Topics covered include: stigma related to mental health at work; the role of managers in preventing and managing psychosocial risks; the recognition of occupational diseases in the EU: mental health, gender equality and psychosocial risks at work; young workers: mental health at work; and the mental health of online content reviewers.
We have undertaken several studies for EU-OSHA, including a study on digital platform work and a study on advanced robotics and artificial intelligence (AI)-based systems for automation of tasks and OSH. The latter focused on two types of AI-based systems:
• AI-based systems for the automation of cognitive tasks, such as systems using machine learning, natural language processing (NLP), or knowledge-based systems;
• Physical task automation systems such as intelligent cobots.
It examined how these technologies impact workers’ safety and health, highlighting both the opportunities and challenges they present to OSH prevention, policy and practice. The project involved an analysis of scientific literature, available data, a review of existing policies and initiatives, and field research at workplaces. The study also made several recommendations for policy, research and practice to support decision-making.
Milieu provided the members of the European Parliament’s Committee on Employment and Social Affairs (EMPL Committee) with an analysis of the EU OSH legislation’s capacity to address the challenges raised by the COVID-19 pandemic within workplaces, together with a review of the gaps in the EU OSH framework at the time. Published in March 2022, the study analysed how the COVID-19 pandemic affected workers, including a review by sector and workplaces. The research highlighted direct biological risks, as well as the indirect risks related to teleworking (e.g. musculoskeletal or psychological risks) and to work organisation (e.g. digitalisation, new ways of working). Our researchers looked at Member States’ measures to ensure workers’ health and safety of workers and analysed the extent to which EU legislation (such as Directive 2000/53/EC on biological agents at work and the OSH Framework Directive) were fit-for-purpose and effective in the new circumstances.